Native American Portraits at the Pine Bluffs Archeology Site

 These are a few of the portraits of Native Americans at the archeology center.

Pretty Nose who fought at Little Big Horn

Chief Washakie and his son

Chief Red Cloud

Native Americans at York Rest Area East Bound

 York Rest Area Eastbound on the I80 in Nebraska

Red Cloud and his wife

Omaha Indian

transportation of goods

Book Review: Spotlight on Native Americans: Ojibwe

 Spotlight on Native Americans: Ojibwe by Torren Ramsey, PowerKids Press, Rosen Publishing Group Inc., New York, 2016.

The Ojibwe people are on of the more numerous Native American tribes. They extended from the Northern Great Plains in Canada to the southeastern Great Lakes in the United States.  Also known as Chipewa.  Their original name meaning the people, Anishinaabeg.

Initial contact with Europeans was with French Trappers.  Through treaty more and more of their land was taken for use by White populations.  Thee treaties guaranteed the right of the Ojibwe to hunt on their native lands.  This right eroded but over time courts have restored this right.  

The Ojibwe would move with the seasons.  They would hunt and fish during the summer, and harvest maple for syrup in the spring.  Winter was a time of preparing furs for trading.  Women would garden, squash, corn and beans as well as gather.  

Louise Erdrich is Ojibwe.  She writes books.  Rebecca Belmore is a visual artist.  Ron Noganosh is a painter

Book Review: Spotlight on Native Americans: Muscogee (Creek)

 Spotlight on Native Americans: Muscogee (Creek) by Ralph Waterby, Rosen Publishing Group, New York, 2016,

This trib prefer to call themselves Muscogee, their traditional name.  Europeans called them Creek because they lived near creeks in the southeast, Georgia and Alabama.  Europeans prized their land, and eventually the government forced all of the Muscogee in Georgia to move, and most in Alabama.  They moved to the reservation in Oklahoma.  The were forced to move in the winter of 1836-37.  The Indian removal Act called for Native Americans to leave voluntarily.  Those who did not leave voluntarily were forced to go.  20,000 were moved to Oklahoma.  3500 died on the trail.  William McIntosh had agreed to sell Muscogee land.  In this he broke the law as there was no council.  He was put to death.  

During the Civil War the Muskogee tribe was divided, some supporting the Union and others fought with the Confederacy.  Those fighting for the Confederacy killed many Muscogee.  

The traditional Muscogee had an abundant life.  The had good soil for raising crops, corn, squash and beans.  There was also game to hunt.  They lived in rectangular houses built from wood.  The enjoyed the Green-corn ceremony every year.  Corn was their sustaining crop which never failed, even in times of drought.  

Today the Muscogee people seem to thrive.  There are nearly 100,000.  The greater portion are in Oklahoma with their capital being Okmulgee.  There is also a significant group in Alabama, the Poarch Band of Creek.

Joy Harjo and Cynthia Leitich Smith are authors of poetry and children's books and are members of the Muscogee Nation.

This book provides background information and introduces themes bearing further study such as the Trail of Tears.  

Book Review: Shoshone by F.A.Bird

 Shoshone, Native American Nations by F.A.Bird, Checkerboard Library, and Imprint of Abdo Publishing, North Mankato, Minnesota, 2025.

This is a small book in a series which deals with the Shoshone.  The Shoshone had a wide area with many different bands, but shared the same language.  There territory extended from Wyoming and Montana, through Idaho and northern Utah and into Nevada and then into the Death Valley area of California.  There were many different types of land, desert of the Great Basin and Death Valley, mountains of the Rockies, and Uintahs, valleys and canyons.  Those of the easter Shoshone would hunt buffalo, in the north they would catch salmon.

The housing would vary based on season and location.  In the summer brush huts would often suffice, and be left up from year to year.  However during the winter teepees were more common.  They would often make lean-tos to keep off the sun in the summer.  

In addition to buffalo and salmon they would eat other small game they would hunt with bows and arrows.  They would also hunt smaller animals they would trap with snares.  The would also gather nuts and berries as well as camas root which they would make into a flower.  Pine nut gathering is an annal tradition among Shoshone where pinyon pine was prevalent.  

Craft were are and important activity.  Porcupine quill decorations were common.  Traditionally they made awls of bone and thread of sinew.  Shoshone women would often wear am awl around their neck kept in a leather pouch.  

Babies were often kept in cradle boards from which they found comfort when they were wrapped tight.  Children had time to play and swim.  Older children helped with chores.  

Adults would teach children, often through stories about coyote.  

Chief Washakie was a chief of the eastern bands.  However his influence extended throughout all of Shoshone land.  His statue is outside the Wyoming State Capitol.  

Magazine Article Review: The Collapse of Cheyenne Supremacy on the Central Plains

 The Collapse of Cheyenne Supremacy on the Central Plains by John H. Monnett, Nebraska History Magazine, Volume 104 No. 3 Fall, History Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, pp. 128-145.

The Cheyene of South Central Nebraska and North Central Kansas followed the buffalo.  The claimed territory as far south as the Arkansas River and as far north as the Platte River.  There were two types of chiefs, war chiefs and peace chiefs.  Those two had different philosophies.  Eventually those who wanted war began to win out.  These were joined by the Dog Men.  

Eventually even the Dog Men agreed to a treaty. They felt they were assured the could hunt freely between the Arkansas and Platte rivers "until the buffalo became extinct."  The Cheyenne felt the treaty of Medicine Lodge Creek assured this; but the ratified version passed by congress did not mention this.  After the treaty in 1867 there were nine months of peace.  However after the ratified version was made known, feelings were different.  Add to this the encroachment of white settlers, who plowed the land and killed the grass the buffalo needed, the Cheyenne went to war.  Buffalo lands were already fragile and diminishing due to the overland trails and the advancement of the rails.  They were also over hunted, sometimes just for sport.  This activity was encouraged by the military generals, William Tecumseh Sherman and Phil Sheridan.  But the settlers with their fences and plows is what put the Indians over the top.  

The fighting was fierce in late 1868.  Many settlers were attacked and killed.  The federal military had a no holes barred policy in retribution even attacking non combatants. However over time, due to attrition and poor food supplies, the Cheyenne were defeated and had to go to the reservations by 1890.  By then the buffalo were about gone.

Book Review: The Shoshones by Liz Sonneborn

 The Shoshones by Liz Sonneborn, Native American Histories, Lerner Publications Company, Minneapolis, Minn., 2007.

This book actually gives a very accurate description of the Shoshone.  I like reading about the Shoshone because I lived amongst the Western Shoshone for a couple of years.  The book starts talking of the Western Shoshone but then loses them in the last couple of chapters.  I noticed the consultants for the book were both of the Eastern Shoshone.  

There is a good map that describes the homeland of the Shoshone, the Western Shoshone went from easter Utah, through Nevada and into California.  Northern Shoshone occupied northern Utah and much of southern Idaho.  Their major reservation is now Fort Hall which is shared with the Bannock.  The Eastern Shoshone include most of western Wyoming.  They were granted reservation land along the Wind River under Chief Washakie.  

The western Shoshone traditionally had the harder life.  Food supplies were lest plentiful in the great Basin desert.  There was the possibility of catching large game, but mostly small game such as squirrels and rabbits were most plentiful.  They would also gather pine nuts, and often their winter food supply depended on how much pinyon pine nuts they could find in the autumn.  Beading and basket making were also products which could be traded or enjoyed.  

This book also mentions Sacagawea and the Lewis and Clark expedition.  Sacagawea was from the northern Shoshone groups.  There is the story of the Dann sisters of the Te Moak band of the Western Shoshone.  They were suing the federal government when I lived amongst the Shoshone.  They were trying to pursue grazing rights which was restricted by the BLM.  

Book Review: Phillip Johnston and the Navajo Code Talkers

 Phillip Johnston and the Navajo Code Talkers, Indian Culture Series, Montana Indian Publication Plan.

This is a short book which explains the relationship between Phillip Johnston and the Navajo Code Talkers.  Phillip Johnston grew up among the Navajo, and consequently learned Navajo as a child, a very difficult language.  When WWII started Phillip Johnston was too old to serve as a soldier.  He was aware of issues with secret codes, and the Japanese ease with breaking the codes.  Codes were changed almost daily as a result.  He knew Navajo was a difficult language and came up with the idea of using Navajo speakers, and code to keep messages secret.  It took some time to convince the military he was onto something.  At his own expense he took four Navajo to the Marine Base by San Diego to demonstrate and convince the Marines to use his idea.  The Navajo also had the ability to become code experts.

Johnston was brought back to the Marines to train the Navajo.  The program was highly successful as they were able to communicate.   The survivors of the program received medallions in 1969 at a special meeting.  

Book Review: American Indian: Celebrating the Voices, Traditions and Wisdom of Native Americans

American Indian: Celebrating the Voices, Traditions and Wisdom of Native Americans, edited by Ashley Kircher, Weldonowen, San Francisco, 2012.

This is a fascinating book.  It is large size with many pictures and artwork.  But it is also organized well.  Each chapter has a different author.  From this book I learn that the three sisters are squash, beans and corn.  The book enlightens the viewer, reader to many customs of Native Americans.  The art is portrayed throughout the book, from things made to be used like basketry and pottery and musical instruments.  Dance and son are portrayed beautifully.  This is a book to own.

Book Review: The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America

The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America, Andres Resendez, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Boston, 2016.

It seems that at times historians develop a theme, and then paint their story to fit that theme.  In this book the point is that 2.5 million Native Americans in the Americas, North and South, were used as slaves.  Of these 150 to 350 thousand were in the United States or Canada.  He contends that the effect of slavery on the general population was as great as that in Africa.  From Africa there were 5 million slaves, but the Native American slavery represented a larger percentage of the population.  He also argues that over work and poor conditions may have been contributing factors to the sharp population decline of Native Americans. 

This book gets very shady when the author admits that the number provided is not accurate, but a starting point.  Also I fail to recognize exactly what he categorizes as a slave. 

American slavery began in the Caribbean, where Native American of some areas were taken and forced to work in gold mines elsewhere.  He contends Columbus was involved, after failing to realize getting to India.  Initially some were sent to Spain, but the Spanish royalty resisted the slave trade.  They eventually relented for those Native Americans who caused trouble, or were classified as cannibals. 

I am sure he includes the California Mission Native Americans.  In this case Native Americans were brought to the missions and forced to work as part of their being Christianized.  People can argue for or against this policy.  There was a battle resulting from some of them leaving the Mission.   

He talks of the slave trade preceding the Mormons, but when a Mormon was forced to purchase a slave so the child would not be put to death, then the Mormons were complicit.  This seemed to be a standard practice, Native Americans would starve others the captured as slaves, so the Mormons would take pity on them and “rescue” them thus making them slave owners.  However he also talks of Brigham Young fighting against slavery, and Chief Walkara who was big in the slave capture and trade.  Mormons did participate in buying slaves often as a way to “rescue” them.  However they did participate in labor and domestic chores. 

I feel the conclusions of this book are dubious, including the number of slaves.  Sometimes, economic relationships that do not include pay may not be slavery.  It is hard to judge past relationships based on today's standards.  However, granted there was slavery, and often this slavery is ignored or over looked.

Recent Happennings: Bear River Massacre SIte

I have found a couple interesting articles in the desert News.  From a couple days ago is a story of a ceremony honoring those killed at the massacre, now thought to be 400 making this the largest slaughter of native Americans in U.S. history.  That means only about sixty to seventy Native Americans survived.  The deaths included many women and children, some of whom were killed in the cross fire, while others were deliberately killed.  The Northwest Shoshone now own a portion of the land upon which the battle took place.
The other is verification of the actual site of the massacre.  Generally this is just north of Preston Idaho along the Bear River.

Book Review: The Courage of Sarah Noble

The Courage of Sarah Noble by Alice Dalgliesh, illustrated by Leonard Weisgard, Aladdin Books, New York, 1954. 

This is purported to be a true story, although many of the details are imagined.  That there was a girl, Sarah Noble, and eight-year-old girl travels with her father into the wilderness, to build a new house on land her father had purchased.  This was in Connecticut in 1707.  Sarah was worried about the Native Americans.  Turns out they were friendly.  An Indian family takes Sarah in while her father travels to bring back the family.  There is some controversy about this book, and that Sarah makes up names for some of the Indian children because she had difficulty pronouncing them.  Her father also makes up a name for their father.  Some think this shows a racist flavor.  However this book does show that people of different ethnic backgrounds can get along, and language does not have to be a barrier.  Nor do different colors of skin, or different cultures.

Native American Art and Artifacts at San Juan Bautista

Intricate basket for fishing or for storage

arrow head

basketry

grinding rock mortar and pestle

tools

tule boat

mortar

duck decoy

dream catcher (this was in the store rather than the museum

Sagwitch, Shoshone Chieftan, Mormon Elder 1822-1887 (2nd review)

This brief article is from Legacy: International Society: Daughters of Utah Pioneers
few People know or remember that some very important Shoshone Native American men were prominent leaders in the early days of the Mormon Church.
Chief Sagwitch of the Northwestern Shoshone tribe lived on the lower Bear River and was wounded at the Bear River Massacre January 29, 1863.  Many of his family were killed.  Nevertheless, during the years immediately following the massacre, the chief and his band came to know the Mormon residents of Brigham City and he joined the Mormon Church under the tutelage of Mormon missionary George Washington Hill and followed the steps of the Priesthood to become an Elder.
Sagwitch homesteaded land near Portage, Utah and also at Washakie, a small Mormon-sponsored Indian community in Box Elder County.  It is recorded that he helped build the Temple in Logan, Utah.  He experienced the traditional Indian patterns of hunting and gathering to the adjustment of adapting successfully to both EuroAmerican and religious influences.
His descendant included Moroni Timbimboo, the first native American Bishop in the Mormon Church and Bruce Parry, for many years director of Utah's Bureau of Indian Affairs.
The DUP Camp in Paradise, Utah was named in honor of Chief Sagwitch as well as two mountain peaks and a basin between the Cache and Ogden valleys.

Chapter Review: Did Pocahontas Save John Smith?

Unsolved Mysteries of American History by Paul Aron, Barnes and Noble Books, New York, 1997.
About the only source that Pocahontas saved John Smith from her father, Powhatan, comes from John Smith himself.  There are no other first party corroborating statements.  The statement wasn't released until some years after the events.  there was a great age difference between Smith and Pocahontas.  However Smith never claimed the relationship was romantic.  It seems Pocahontas helped many with her influence and generosity.  However parts the the story don't make sense.  The author draws the conclusion that to Smith, maybe things appeared like Pocahontas saved him, while instead it may have been part of an adoption into the tribe ritual.  That Smith needed a sponsor.  This would have been a traditional death and rebirth ritual.  Smith would have felt intimidated by Powhatan, and grateful to Pocahontas.  
As for me, I accept the story as written by Smith, because I like the story, and I don't want to take away from the bravery of Pocahontas. 
 

Chapter Review: What Happened to the Lost Colony of Roanoke?

Unsolved Mysteries of American History by Paul Aron, Barnes and Noble Books, New York, 1997.
The Roanoke colonist predated the Jamestown colony of British settlers in America.  Roanoke Island is off the coast of North Carolina.  This was 20 years before the Jamestown.  the governor of the colony, John White, only stayed a short time.  His daughter gave birth to the first English baby born in America, Virginia Dare.  He then returned to England to negotiate for more supplies and support.  He returned three years later, and the colony had disappeared.  they left carved in a tree the word, Croatan.  Perhaps the left and joined the Native American on Croatoan Island.  However they had been told to go north, and the island was south.  
Sir Walter raleigh was the money behind the project.  However he fell out of favor with the queen, and was off on other adventures.  the colony was somewhat forgotten.  
There in fact was even an earlier colony by two years.  However this colony faded into the mist as well.  However this colony was rescued just in time.  they had alienated the locals, and were short on food.  Sir Walter raleigh appeared with ships, and took them aboard, making room by leaving some slaves and Indians who had been rescued from the Spanish.  Those left also disappeared.  
With regards to the lost colony, it is generally felt the majority went north, and were killed when they allied themselves with the Chesapeake Indians.  This group was wiped out by Powhatan.  A for the few who had been left to guard the original settlement, it is believed the did go to Croatoan and mixed in with the Native Americans.  
the governor of the colony, though not much of a governor (he left) he was an artist, and consequently we have from him the first pictures by and Englishman of Native Americans.  these were painted in 1585.

Chapter Review: Where Did Columbus Land?

Unsolved Mysteries of American History by Paul Aron, Barnes and Noble Books, New York, 1997.
Some people, with their made up history, have accused Columbus as the culprit of everything bad thing that has happened over the past 500+ years, which is just nonsense.  Columbus was a man who embarked on a quest for a different route to India, and was willing to risk his reputation and life on that quest.   However, a more important question that where he landed, is what he thought about what he had found.  There are several islands that claim to be the spot of the first landing.  They are all in the Bahamas, and the historical record is so old, it is open to interpretation today.  Columbus never returned to the original landing site.  However a more interesting question is at what point did Columbus realize he had found something other than a route to India?  The debate here ranges from, Columbus always though he had found islands off the coast of India, v. his intention all along was to discover a new world.  What is certain is that two cultures collided, which collision caused terrible hardship for the Native Americans.

Chapter Review: When Did the First People Arrive in America?

Unsolved Mysteries of American History, by Paul Aaron, Barnes and Noble Books, New York, 1997.
This book starts with a chapter on the origin of the Native Americans.  It proposed that the majority of them came across the Bering Strait, when it was a land bridge at the end of an ice age in about 12,000 B.C.  However there are others how have evidence of earlier inhabitants.  There are also those who contend that some of the Native Americans are of Hebrew or Middle Eastern origin.  Some even contend they were survivors of Atlantis.  I think in the end, accepting all theories as a partial explanation for the arrival of the Native Americans is a good bet.  Of course theories of native Americans coming from the lost tribes predates Joseph Smith.  The Book of Mormon explains the arrival of a group to America, although likely only a small group compared to those already here.  If you ask Native Americans themselves, they will tell you many stories of how they arrived as well.

Book Review: The World of North American Indians

The World of North American Indians: Passport to the Past, Michael Stotter, Rosen Central, New York, 2009.

This book is pretty shallow in terms of content, it allows only a couple pages for each subject.  However it does include some craft projects which seem nice.  Of course you are not making authenticate items, but mostly making things out of paper.

This book is more an anthropological description of Indian life from new born to death and how these things are dealt with by various different tribes.  It includes communication, shelter, transportation (horses) and other topics.  However being as brief as it is it is hard to get a full picture. 

Book Review: Amazing Native American History

Amazing Native American History, The New York Public Library,: A Book of Answers for Kids, Liz Sonneborn, A Stonesong Press Book, New York, 1999.
This book has some excellent information, but I feel it is a bit too broad to cover everything it tries to cover.  It starts with ancient Indians in the United States, including Mound Builders and cliff dwellings.  It then skips to Mexico and ancient ruins there.  It then goes through different regions of Native Americans and their history.  Unfortunately it skips the mountain region as it skips from the Plains Indians to the Southwest Indians and then the California Indians.  I like to hear about those form the intermountain area.  
My other complaint is the way it is set up, presenting a question and then answering the question.  In fact the best information I gleaned from this book was the side information in boxes.  There I learned of women warriors and artists and city populations and many other fine things.  
This book helps my continuing study of Native Americans but is a bit broad in some areas, and narrow in others.