History of Elkhart County: Elkhart County Historical Museum

In addition to providing a good history of the Native Americans in the area, Miami and Potawatomi, the museum also gives a good history of the people coming to Elkhart County.  Significant points in Elkhart history includes the develop of mills,the development of medical devices, the manufacturing of musical instruments, becoming a train hub, and the dominance of the St. Joseph River.

Native American History as per the Elkhart County History Museum

The major tribes in the Elkhart area are Potawatomi and Miami; both Algonquin speaking tribes. Both lived and prospered, and both had victories at war with European encroachment and eventual lost battles and removal.

Book Review: Trails of Tears: Paths of Beauty

Trails of Tears: Paths of Beauty: The Story of the Navajos and the Cherokees by Joseph Bruchac, National Geographic, Washington, D.C., 2000.

This book incudes some very beautiful photography while telling the story of the Navajo and Cherokee peoples.  It includes the origin stories of both groups, and describes their conflicts and the results.  The Cherokee were betrayed by President Andrew Jackson, who was determined to head the desires of the citizins of Georgia and remove the native Americans to west of the Mississippi.  Many died after they were kept locked up all summer in the heat and then 

  The Navajo for their part have a respected but hated enemy in the person of Kit Carson.  Also General James H Carlton had the idea that he could force the Navajo to make an agricultural paradise at Bosque Redondo.  The military showed no mercy to the Navajo, burning their homes and destroying their food untilProblem the ground was not conducive to agriculture.  It took a couple years and many deaths before he was replaced, and the United States negotiated with the Navajo for their return to their traditional land. 

My problem with this book is it limits he story to two Ngtive American Tribes.  However in terms of the U.S. policy of putting Native Americans on reservations, it seems every tribe has their own sry to tell.  Many have their own trail of tars, such as the Ponca who were forced to Oklahoma from Nebraska, White River and Uncompahgre Ute who were forced from Colorado to Utah, The Hualapai from Arizona who were forced from their traditional area to Fort Mohave where many died due to heat before they were allowed to return, and other easter tribes forced to Oklahoma. 

Book Review: The Cherokees: A First Americans Book

 The Cherokees: A First Americans Book by Virginia Driving Hawk Sneve, illustrated by Ronald Himler, Holiday House, New York, 1996.

The original Cherokee territory included northern Georgia and Alabama and then most of Tennessee and also parts of South and North Carolina.  They had different homes in summer and winter.  Winter homes were circular and larger.  They had a fire burning in the center day and night.  Summer homes were oblong and smaller.  A village would have 30-60 homes.  There was no chief of all the Cherokee, thee would be council meetings with several communities.

The men enjoyed sports.  Villages were built around squares which were used for dancing or games.  The men participated in stickball, a game similar to lacrosse.  There were 50 en per team and villages would play eachother.  Games were often accompanied by dances.

Women also participated in government and there were female councils held.  women were considered sacred.  The planted and raised crops, cared for livestock, smoked meat, tanned hides and made and repaired clothing.

Children, boys and girls played together until about ten years ole.  Then the participated in gender related activities, boys learning to hunt and girls to help their mothers.  Listening to stories was a common pastime for children.

Ceremony and dance were important to Cherokee communities; especially the green corn dance.  Part of this ceremony was starting new.  They would clean their home, get rid of or repair torn and old clothing,  They would also put ut their fires.  Then a medicine man would start a new fire and torches would go from that to all the homes to start new fires.

Contact with white men brought change.  Many tried to adopt white ways.  They were "civilized."  However the Cherokee land kept shrinking with whites taking more and more.  Cherokee became literate based on Sequoyah's alphabet.  Many of them also dressed in White man clothes.

Even so President Jackson decided the Cherokee had to move, and Congress voted with him.  Major John Ridge who was the elected chief at the time accepted the treaty of New Echola.  He was afraid Georgia would just take their land with no recompense.  They were to receive $5 million to move west.  Many did not want to leave, but 17,000 Cherokee left for Indian Territory.  This was the Trail of Tears.  Four thousand Cherokee died on the trek.  

There are still Cherokee in the east.  A band of 400 were left in North Carolina.  This became the eastern Cherokee.

In Oklahoma there is no longer a Cherokee reservation, but there is a government.  Their land was allotted, giving each family land but also making some available to white settlers.  

Magazine Article Review: The Final Hunt: Massacre Canyon: The Pawnee Faced the Sioux in the Final Plains Battle

 The Final Hunt: At Massacre Canyon on August 5, 1873, The Pawnee Nation Faced Their Last Stand.  Today Their Story of Loss and Survival Endures Through Remembrance, by Ron Soodalter, Nebraska Life, May/June 2025.

This is a fascinating story.  The Pawnee were hoping for a successful buffalo hunt.  They had received permission from the government to pursue the buffalo.  Initially the hunt was going very well.  The harvested 650 buffalo at 1000 pounds of meet each.  Their people was experiencing hunger and needed the food.  However the leader, Chief Red Cloud, ignored signs that their enemy, the Sioux, were close, until it was too late.  On the morning of August 5 they found themselves surrounded by the Sioux.  The Sioux sent bullets and arrows into their ranks.  Many tried to flee, but this wan't a battle, but a massacre.  

The Pawnee had endured hardship for over 100 years, but this date all that suffering came to a head.  The federal government failed to protect the Pawnee from the Sioux.  They were often forced to serve as scouts for the federals, which put them in the crosshairs of the Sioux.  

Conservative estimates say 20 men, 39 women and 10 children were killed.   10 more were wounded and eleven were taken prisoner.  Sky Chief and his son were among the dead.  His daughter escaped with historical papers. 

All their goods were lost, including the buffalo meet.  Local settlers helped themselves to what the Sioux did not take.  They were left destitute on the plains, 200 miles from their reservation.  The Indian agent with them was able to but a limited amount of food, to get them back.  The governement paid them $9000 for the loss of 100 horses.  

As a result of this action the Pawnee were discouraged.  They left Nebraska and went to live in Oklahoma, Indian territory with their friends the Wichitas.  By 1875 all 3700 Pawnee were living in Indian territory.

The site of the massacre is now marked by a memorial and has been designated an historical site.

Recent Happennings: Bear River Massacre SIte

I have found a couple interesting articles in the desert News.  From a couple days ago is a story of a ceremony honoring those killed at the massacre, now thought to be 400 making this the largest slaughter of native Americans in U.S. history.  That means only about sixty to seventy Native Americans survived.  The deaths included many women and children, some of whom were killed in the cross fire, while others were deliberately killed.  The Northwest Shoshone now own a portion of the land upon which the battle took place.
The other is verification of the actual site of the massacre.  Generally this is just north of Preston Idaho along the Bear River.

Book Review: Utah Indian Stories

Utah Indian Stories, by Milton R. Hunter, fourth edition, Deseret Book Company, Salt Lake City, Ut, 1960.
This book is an enigma.  It is not really Utah Indian Stories, but Utah pioneer stories about the Indians.  It tells over and over of the bravery of the pioneers in facing the Indians, and how their courage at times influenced the Indians so they would escape with their lives because of their bravery.   As a result most of the book is forgettable, except for the last few chapters.  There is a very good section on  Chief Black Hawk.  We actually see the life of a Native American.  We see him make a commitment to a Mormon Bishop, that none of his family would be touched.  however on of the Bishop's sons was killed.  He was ready to sacrifice his own life in an attempt to make things right.  We also see the conclusion of Black hawk's War.  When he was dying he tried to make amends by coming to peace with the Mormons.  He was dying of tuberculosis.

Book Review: The World of North American Indians

The World of North American Indians: Passport to the Past, Michael Stotter, Rosen Central, New York, 2009.

This book is pretty shallow in terms of content, it allows only a couple pages for each subject.  However it does include some craft projects which seem nice.  Of course you are not making authenticate items, but mostly making things out of paper.

This book is more an anthropological description of Indian life from new born to death and how these things are dealt with by various different tribes.  It includes communication, shelter, transportation (horses) and other topics.  However being as brief as it is it is hard to get a full picture. 

Book Review: Amazing Native American History

Amazing Native American History, The New York Public Library,: A Book of Answers for Kids, Liz Sonneborn, A Stonesong Press Book, New York, 1999.
This book has some excellent information, but I feel it is a bit too broad to cover everything it tries to cover.  It starts with ancient Indians in the United States, including Mound Builders and cliff dwellings.  It then skips to Mexico and ancient ruins there.  It then goes through different regions of Native Americans and their history.  Unfortunately it skips the mountain region as it skips from the Plains Indians to the Southwest Indians and then the California Indians.  I like to hear about those form the intermountain area.  
My other complaint is the way it is set up, presenting a question and then answering the question.  In fact the best information I gleaned from this book was the side information in boxes.  There I learned of women warriors and artists and city populations and many other fine things.  
This book helps my continuing study of Native Americans but is a bit broad in some areas, and narrow in others. 

Documentary Review: We Shall Remain: Wounded Knee

This is the last of the five episodes presented by PBS through their program American Experience.  This feels focuses on the take over of Wounded Knee by Oglala Sioux and American Indian Movement activists in 1973.  They occupied the town for 71 days.  Part of their goal was to oust Tribal Chairman Richard Wilson.  They also wanted to reopen some o the original treaty negotiations.  When two of the occupiers were killed by Federal Marshals, they occupiers gave up.  The government never really et wit them, and they arrested many of those involved.  The community had one of the highest murder rates in the country after this uprising, much of this blamed on Wilson and his GOONS, Guardians of the Oglala Nation.  This movie only mentioned briefly the Wounded Knee Massacre.

Documentary Review: American Experience: We Shall Remain: After the Mayflower

In this first episode at a series looking at Native American history after the coming of the Europeans deals with the Pilgrims and their relationship with the Wampanoag people.  The Wampanoag had gone through a devastating plague just before the English arrived at Plymouth Rock.  This plague was likely brought to them by European fishermen who had started to have contact with the Native Americans along the coast.  As a result, the English found a territory underpopulated.  The disease had taken a great many lives.  Chief Massasoit watched the Pilgrims with caution.  It wasn't for three months after they landed that the Native Americans finally decided to make contact with them.  Because they had brought their children and wives, it was felt they could be trusted.
This story deals with the many years of peaceful relationships between the British and the Massasoit.  This helped the Pilgrims get established.  The story of the first Thanksgiving is fascinating, as Massasoit attends with many of his warriors.  The bring five deer to contribute to the feast.
There is a period where Massasoit falls ill, and he is nursed back to health by a friend from amongst the pilgrims.  By the first year of the Pilgrims coming to America there was a peace treaty in place between the two peoples.
Before Massasoit passed away he asked the British to give his sons Christian names.  His older son was given the name Alexander, and the younger Phillip.  The peaceful relations between his people and the British would last even beyond his death in 1661.  His son Alexander continued the peace.  However when his next son, Phillip, took over as chief things began to deteriorate.  Phillip (Metacomet) could see that the British intent was to take over, and that his people would only be second class citizens in their own country.  The British tried to extend their laws to his people, and it just didn't fit.  He felt disrespected, and no longer an equal.  Finally he formed an alliance with several neighboring tribes, and initiated a war against the British.  It was very effective against those communities that were not well defended.  Many towns were burned, and many settler had to retreat to larger communities.  However, the Mohawk aligned with the British, and killed 500 of his warriors in an attack.  After that Phillip and his people did not have the strength to carry on.  Phillip visited the community of his youth, where he was killed.  His body was dismembered, and parts given to different people for their part in his death.  His head was mounted on a pike and placed at the entrance to Fort Plymouth as a warning against others who may attack.  His wife and son were captured and sold as slaves in Bermuda.

Native American Biography: Iroquois Confederacy

Deganawida, Huron, is credited with being the founder of the Iroquois Confederacy, but would not have been successful without the help of Hiawatha.  The third participant is Atotarho who represented the Onondaga.  When the Confederacy was formed it was during a period of great violence.  There was much warring between tribes, and some tribes practiced cannibalism and/or human sacrifice.  It is said Deganawida was sent by the Creator to bring the message of peace.  He was a prophet.  Hiawatha, a Mohawk, had been part of the violence, likely practicing cannibalism.  However after a dream he began searching.  He traveled to Deganawida who had started preaching peace.  Hiawatha became a prophet in his own right, but also the spokesperson for the pair.  The espoused the ideals of  “peace, civil authority, righteousness, and the great law." The confederation would not have happened if they could not bring the  Onondaga on board, and their leader Atotarho was hesitant.  To the Onandago was give the prime position of central fire-keepers, a position they still hold.  The Iroquois initially included five tribes, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayoga and Seneca; and eventually six when joined by the Tuscarora.

Native American Biography: Navajo During the Navajo War and Bosque Redondo: Narbona, Manuelito, Delgadito, Barboncito

Manuelito

Manuelito was war chief during the time of the Navajo War.  The Navajo were generally peaceful to the Whites, but this attitude began to change.  Narbona was an influential medicine man who sued for peace when a force from New Mexico came to Navajo country under the command form Colonel John Washington.  After signing the treaty, a volunteer from new Mexico felt he recognized his stolen horse among the Navajo.  He insisted on its return, but the current owner had not stolen the horse.  He left.  Colonel Johnson, siding with the New Mexican said he could take any horse.  So the rest of the Navajo warriors began to flee as well.  Johnson order his troops to open fire.  Seven Navajo were killed, among them Narbona, who was scalped as he lay dying by one of the New Mexico volunteers.   More warlike Navajos such as Manuelito began to have greater influence as a result.  Manuelito was born in southeast Utah and became a war chief when his father-in-law was killed by federal soldiers.
As part of the treaty, the Americans began to establish forts.  One of these was Fort Defiance.  During a time of drought, the Navajo asked the Americans not to grace their animals on prime agricultural land close to the fort.  The Americans insisted and killed several cattle and horses belonging to Manuelito.  The Navajo responded by killing some of the Americans.  This is known as the first battle of Fort Defiance.
In the second battle of Fort Defiance, Manuelito had a group of 1000 attack the fort.  He was helped by Barboncito, and Barboncito's brother Delgadito.  Both Barboncito and Delgadito were medicine men.  Delgadito would learn silversmithing from a Mexican craftsman.  He would also learn metal techniques from an American.  he then turned around and taught others silversmithing and metal work.  This is now the most important source of income to the Navajos.
During early periods of the Civil War, as the attention of many of the federal resources were turned elsewhere, the Navajo were able to increase their raids.  However, in 1864, the governor of New Mexico told all the Navajo chiefs, they must cede their lands and move to Bosque Redondo, and area in New Mexico so named because of a small forest.  This was an area forty square miles on the Pecos River where the Native Americans, Navajo and Apache, were to learn farming.
Kit Carson carried out the campaign to move the Navajo to the reservation; a 300 mile walk from their homeland.  To convince them to go he engaged in a scorched earth policy.  The corn fields and cattle of the Navajo were destroyed, until starvation was the norm.  Slowly the warring parties were forced to surrender first in 1864.  The last was Manuelito in 1866.  They had been told the stay would be for but a few months, but months turned into years.  Many Navajo dyed on "The Long Walk" to the reservation, and many more dyed after arriving their.  The water from the river was brackish, and quickly the wood supply was exhausted.
William Sherman was sent to investigate poor conditions in 1868.  He negotiated a treaty which allowed the Navajo to return to their homeland, the four corners area, but with a reduced size.  Upon given this privilege Barboncito said, "We do not want to go to the right or the left, but straight back to our country."
Ganado Mucho also played a prominent part in first attempted to keep the peace, and then making the march to Bosque Redondo.  He had attempted to move his people north, the the Grand Canyon area but they could not feed themselves, so the surrendered to the army.  During the long walk, two of his daughters were kidnapped by Mexicans; and while at Bosque redondo one of his sons was killed by Comanche.  He was part of the negotiations which allowed the return home of the Navajo.

Native American Biographies: Pocahontas, Powhatan and Openchancanough: Jamestown

U.S. stamp featuring Pocahontas in English attire

When the English first came to Jamestown, they were very vulnerable.  True they had more sophisticated weaponry than the native Americans.  However Powhatan had 9000 people under his leadership which extended through the James river area.  He ruled not only the Algonquin speaking people, but also others in the region.  His was the decision as to whether the Jamestown colony would survive.  He took a wait and see attitude.  His decision was influenced by his  daughter Pocahontas.  John Smith writes about being saved from execution at the hands of Powhatan and his followers.  In this case legend and myth are likely accurate descriptions.  The only other plausible interpretation of events is that Pocahontas was his sponsor in adopting him into the tribe.  At any rate, Powhatan befriended the people at Jamestown, and often resupplied them.  He was hoping to trade for muskets, but the English offered trinkets and beads instead.
At one point Pocahontas was kidnapped by the whites, and held for ransom of kidnapped whites and stolen muskets.  Powhatan ignored the situation knowing that the whites respected Pocahontas and would not harm her.  Pocahontas was baptized, and married John Rolfe.  Powhatan sent two of his sons with gifts to the wedding.  This union resulted in further peaceful relations between the Powhatan people and the Jamestown colonists.
It wouldn't be until after Powhatan's death, that relations would become violent.  Openchancanough, a brother of Powhatan became leader of part of the tribe, and with this power started to oppose the British.  It had been Openchancanough who had captured John Smith when he was almost killed.
Openchancanough was alarmed at the rapid growth of the colony.  This was not really a problem while Powhatan lived as the colonists were still small in number.  He was also alarmed at efforts to assimilate Native Americans into white culture.  His first attack took almost 350 English lives, about a third of the population at the time.  From this time the Virginia declared was and the Native Americans were driven deeper into the forest.  Openchancanough did spearhead another attack, taking 400 lives, but by this time the colonist numbered over 8000.
Perhaps some of the attitude of Openchancanough was the result of things that happened to Pocahontas.  Governor Dale saw a promotional opportunity, and insisted on Pocahontas traveling to England with a few other Indians.  Pocahontas was well accepted.  She always intended to return to her people, but succumbed to small pox.  She would die in England at the tender age of 21.  She was only twelve when she saved John Smith.
So we decide.  Is the story of Jamestown one of Whites misusing their power, and insisting on assimilation.  Or is this a story of how Natives and newcomers could coexist peacefully.